Ancient Rome
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| The Roman Empire at its greatest extent under Trajan, 117 AD | |
| Periods | Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC) Roman Republic (509–27 BC) Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD) |
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| Capital | Rome Constantinople (from 330 AD) |
| Languages | Latin · Greek |
| Religion | Roman polytheism (until 380 AD) Christianity (from 380 AD) |
| Peak area | ~5 million km² (117 AD) |
| Peak pop. | 50–90 million (~20% of world) |
| Preceded by | Etruscan civilization Latin settlements |
| Succeeded by | Byzantine Empire Germanic kingdoms |
Ancient Rome was a civilization centered on the city of Rome, located on the Italian Peninsula. Beginning as a small farming settlement in the 8th century BC, it grew into one of the largest and most powerful empires the world has ever seen. At its height, the Roman Empire stretched from Britain to the Middle East, covering around 5 million square kilometers and ruling over an estimated 50 to 90 million people — roughly 20% of the world's population at the time.
Ancient Rome is usually divided into three main periods: the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), and the Roman Empire (27 BC – 476 AD). Together with ancient Greece, Rome forms what historians call Classical Antiquity, and the two cultures together are known as the Greco-Roman world.
Rome's influence on the modern world is enormous. The Latin language evolved into the Romance languages — French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian. Roman ideas about law, government, architecture, engineering, and literature remain deeply important to Western civilization. The system of government the Romans called res publica ("public affair") directly inspired modern republics like the United States and France.
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2 Founding and Kingdom✎
According to Roman legend, the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who were said to be sons of Mars, the god of war. The story goes that the twins were abandoned as infants and rescued by a she-wolf who raised them. When they grew up, they founded a new city, but quarreled over where to build it. Romulus killed Remus and became the first king of Rome, naming the city after himself.
In reality, archaeological evidence shows that people had been settling in the area around Rome since about 1000 BC. By the 8th century BC, small villages on the famous seven hills of Rome — including the Palatine Hill and the Quirinal Hill — were growing together into a single community. The Romans drained the marshy valley between the hills, and this area eventually became the Roman Forum, the city's political and social center.
Rome was ruled by kings during its first two and a half centuries. Roman tradition names seven kings, beginning with Romulus and ending with Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud). The last three kings were said to be of Etruscan origin, reflecting the strong influence of the Etruscans, who were the dominant power in central Italy at the time. By the end of the royal period, Rome controlled about 780 square kilometers and had a population of perhaps 35,000.
3 The Republic✎
Around 509 BC, the Romans overthrew their last king and established a republic. According to tradition, the overthrow was triggered by the tyrannical behavior of Tarquin the Proud. The word "republic" comes from the Latin res publica, meaning "the people's affair."
Under the Republic, power was shared among elected officials and representative assemblies, with a system of checks and balances. The two most powerful officials were the consuls, who served one-year terms and acted as both heads of state and military commanders. They worked alongside the Roman Senate, which was originally an advisory council of wealthy nobles called patricians but grew in size and influence over time.
Other important officials included tribunes (who represented the common people, or plebeians), praetors (judges), quaestors (financial officers), and censors (who kept the census and watched over public morality). Over time, many of these offices, originally restricted to patricians, were opened to plebeians as well.
3.1 Expansion across Italy✎
During the 5th and 4th centuries BC, Rome gradually conquered its neighbors across the Italian Peninsula. In 390 BC, the city suffered a major setback when an army of Gauls sacked Rome itself. According to legend, the Romans paid a huge ransom of gold for the Gauls to leave, and the Roman general Camillus declared that Rome would be bought back with iron, not gold.
After recovering, Rome resumed its expansion, subduing the Etruscans, the Samnites, and the Greek colonies of southern Italy. By the early 3rd century BC, Rome controlled most of the Italian Peninsula.
3.2 The Punic Wars✎
Rome's biggest rival in the western Mediterranean was Carthage, a powerful trading city in North Africa (in modern-day Tunisia). The two powers fought three devastating conflicts known as the Punic Wars.
The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was fought mainly over control of Sicily and was Rome's first major overseas conflict. The Second Punic War (218–201 BC) was the most dramatic: the Carthaginian general Hannibal famously marched an army — including war elephants — across the Alps into Italy, where he won several crushing victories. Despite this, Rome refused to surrender and eventually defeated Carthage at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. The Third Punic War (149–146 BC) ended with Rome completely destroying the city of Carthage and taking control of North Africa.
These wars transformed Rome from a regional Italian power into the dominant force in the western Mediterranean.
3.3 Late Republic and civil wars✎
As Rome's territory grew, so did its internal problems. Wealthy senators enriched themselves from conquered lands, while ordinary soldiers — mostly small farmers — returned from long campaigns to find their farms in ruin. The gap between rich and poor widened dangerously.
Reformers like the Gracchi brothers tried to redistribute land to poorer citizens in the late 2nd century BC, but both were killed by political opponents. Rome entered a violent period of civil wars and power struggles. Key figures included Gaius Marius, who reformed the army by recruiting landless men (creating soldiers loyal to their generals rather than the state), and Sulla, who marched his troops on Rome itself — the first time a Roman general had done so.
The final century of the Republic saw the rise of powerful military leaders who competed for control. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul (modern France) and then crossed the Rubicon River with his army in 49 BC, sparking a civil war. After defeating his rivals, Caesar became dictator of Rome but was assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March 44 BC) by a group of senators who feared he was destroying the Republic.
After Caesar's death, another round of civil wars followed. Caesar's adopted son Octavian defeated all rivals, including Mark Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt, and in 27 BC became the first Roman emperor under the name Augustus.
4 The Empire✎
The imperial period saw Rome reach its greatest extent and ultimate decline.
4.1 The Principate and Pax Romana✎
Augustus established a system of government called the Principate, in which the emperor held supreme power while maintaining the outward appearance of the old Republic. He reformed the military, built roads and public works, and ushered in a long period of relative peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"), which lasted roughly from 27 BC to 180 AD.
During this period, the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent. Under Emperor Trajan (ruled 98–117 AD), the empire stretched from Britain in the northwest to Mesopotamia in the east, and from the Rhine and Danube rivers in the north to the Sahara Desert in the south.
The city of Rome itself became a spectacular metropolis with a population estimated between 450,000 and one million people. The Romans built iconic structures like the Colosseum, the Pantheon, and vast aqueduct systems that brought fresh water to cities across the empire.
4.2 Crisis and division✎
The late 2nd and 3rd centuries brought serious problems. The period known as the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 AD) saw the empire nearly collapse under the pressure of civil wars, barbarian invasions, plague, and economic depression. In just fifty years, more than twenty emperors rose and fell.
Emperor Diocletian (ruled 284–305 AD) stabilized the empire by splitting its administration into eastern and western halves and creating a system of four co-rulers known as the Tetrarchy. Emperor Constantine I (ruled 306–337 AD) reunited the empire, founded a new eastern capital at Constantinople (modern Istanbul), and became the first emperor to convert to Christianity.
4.3 The fall of the Western Empire✎
Despite these reforms, the Western Roman Empire continued to weaken. Germanic tribes — including the Visigoths, Vandals, and Ostrogoths — pushed across the empire's borders. In 410 AD, the Visigoths sacked Rome itself, shocking the Roman world. In 455 AD, the Vandals sacked it again.
On 4 September 476 AD, a Germanic chieftain named Odoacer deposed the last western emperor, Romulus Augustulus. This date is traditionally used to mark the end of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Western Europe.
The Eastern Roman Empire, however, survived and thrived for nearly another thousand years as the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Constantinople. It finally fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.
5 Society✎
Roman society encompassed sharp class divisions, distinct daily life patterns, and a legal system of lasting influence.
5.1 Social classes✎
Roman society was sharply divided by class. At the top were the patricians, wealthy aristocratic families who dominated politics. Below them were the plebeians, the common citizens, who over time won increasing political rights. The equestrians formed a wealthy business class.
At the bottom of the social ladder were slaves, who made up a significant portion of the population. Slaves had no legal rights and could be bought and sold. However, Roman slavery was not based on race, and slaves could sometimes earn or buy their freedom, becoming freedmen (liberti).
5.2 Daily life✎
Life in Rome varied enormously depending on wealth. Wealthy Romans lived in spacious houses (domus) with courtyards, running water, and elaborate decorations. Poorer citizens lived in crowded apartment buildings called insulae, which were often several stories tall and prone to fire and collapse.
Romans enjoyed public entertainment, including gladiatorial combat in arenas like the Colosseum, chariot races at the Circus Maximus, and theatrical performances. Public bathhouses were important social gathering places where people of different classes could mix.
The average life expectancy was only around 25–28 years, largely due to high infant mortality. Dense urban living and poor sanitation contributed to frequent disease outbreaks, and several major plagues struck the empire over the centuries.
5.3 Law✎
Roman law was one of the civilization's most lasting achievements. Its foundations go back to the Law of the Twelve Tables (449 BC), Rome's first written legal code. Over centuries, Roman legal thought developed three main branches: jus civile (law for Roman citizens), jus gentium (law governing dealings with foreigners), and jus naturale (natural law, principles considered universal to all people).
Roman legal principles — such as the presumption of innocence, the right to a fair trial, and the idea that the law should be written and publicly available — have deeply influenced legal systems across Europe and the Americas.
6 Religion✎
Roman religious practice evolved from polytheism to Christianity over the course of the civilization's history.
6.1 Traditional Roman religion✎
The original religion of Rome was polytheistic, meaning Romans worshipped many gods. The most important were the Capitoline Triad: Jupiter (king of the gods), Juno (queen of the gods), and Minerva (goddess of wisdom). Other major gods included Mars (god of war), Venus (goddess of love), Apollo, and Bacchus (god of wine).
Roman religion borrowed heavily from Greek mythology. Many Roman gods were essentially Greek gods with Latin names — for example, Jupiter was the Greek Zeus, and Venus was the Greek Aphrodite. The Romans also adopted gods and religious practices from other cultures they encountered, including the Egyptian goddess Isis and the Anatolian goddess Cybele.
Worship typically involved sacrifices and offerings at temples to win the gods' favor. The Romans also believed in household spirits and practiced ritual purification to avoid bad luck.
6.2 Rise of Christianity✎
Christianity began in the eastern province of Judaea in the 1st century AD. For much of the early imperial period, Christians were a persecuted minority. The most severe persecution came under Emperor Diocletian in the early 4th century.
Everything changed under Emperor Constantine I, who issued the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, granting Christians freedom of worship. In 380 AD, Emperor Theodosius I made Christianity the empire's official state religion. Over the following century, traditional Roman polytheism was gradually suppressed, and many pagan temples were converted into Christian churches.
The Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church both trace their origins to the state church of the Roman Empire.
7 Legacy✎
Ancient Rome's legacy is woven into almost every aspect of modern Western civilization.
In language, Latin evolved into the Romance languages and contributed thousands of words to English and other languages. In law, Roman legal principles remain the foundation of legal systems across continental Europe and Latin America. In government, the Roman Republic's system of elected representatives, separation of powers, and checks and balances directly inspired the constitutions of the United States and many other democracies. In engineering and architecture, Roman innovations like the arch, the dome, concrete, aqueducts, and road systems remain influential. Many Roman roads are still in use today. In religion, the Roman Empire's adoption and spread of Christianity shaped the course of world history.
The fall of Rome also left a lasting mark. The division between the western and eastern halves of the empire eventually contributed to the split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. The political fragmentation of Western Europe after Rome's fall set the stage for the development of the medieval kingdoms that would eventually become the modern nations of Europe.