Ancient Greece topics

[ Show / Hide ] Glossary of terms · Index History Mycenaean civilization · Greek Dark Ages · Archaic period · Classical period · Hellenistic period · Roman Greece · Late Antiquity Wars & Conflicts Trojan War · Messenian Wars · Greco-Persian Wars (Marathon · Thermopylae · Salamis · Plataea) · Peloponnesian War · Corinthian War · Wars of Alexander the Great City-States Athens · Sparta · Corinth · Thebes · Argos · Megara · Syracuse · Miletus Government & Society Polis · Athenian democracy · Oligarchy · Tyranny · Delian League · Peloponnesian League · League of Corinth · Slavery · Metics Key Figures Homer · Solon · Cleisthenes · Leonidas I · Themistocles · Pericles · Alexander the Great · Philip II of Macedon · Socrates · Plato · Aristotle Culture & Arts Theatre (Tragedy · Comedy) · Art · Architecture (Parthenon) · Literature · Olympic Games · Mythology Philosophy & Science Philosophy (Academy · Lyceum) · Mathematics (Euclid · Pythagoras) · Medicine · Astronomy · Archimedes Religion Greek religion · Twelve Olympians · Mount Olympus · Oracle at Delphi · Greek mythology · Eleusinian Mysteries Language & Writing Ancient Greek · Greek alphabet · Linear B · Koine Greek · Homeric Greek Geography Peloponnese · Attica · Boeotia · Thessaly · Macedonia · Ionia · Magna Graecia · Crete Colonization · Economy · Hellenistic civilization

Ancient Greece (Ἑλλάς(Hellás)) was a civilization centered on the northeastern Mediterranean Sea, lasting from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity around 600 AD. Rather than a single unified country, Ancient Greece was a collection of hundreds of independent city-states (poleis) that shared a common language, religion, and cultural identity. These city-states — most famously Athens and Sparta — developed new forms of government, philosophy, art, and science that have shaped the modern world in countless ways.

Ancient Greece is widely considered the birthplace of Western civilization. Greek thinkers invented democracy, laid the foundations of philosophy and science, and produced works of literature, drama, and art that remain influential to this day. The Greek language served as the common tongue of learning across the Mediterranean for centuries, and Greek ideas about politics, ethics, and knowledge were carried forward by the Roman Empire and eventually spread throughout Europe and beyond.

Greece occupies a large peninsula that juts southward from the Balkans into the eastern Mediterranean, positioned between the Ionian Sea to the west and the Aegean Sea to the east. The peninsula is nearly split in two by the Gulf of Corinth, leaving only the narrow Isthmus of Corinth connecting the northern mainland to the southern Peloponnese.

The land itself is rugged and mountainous, with narrow fertile valleys squeezed between imposing hills and peaks. This geography had a profound effect on how Greek civilization developed. Because mountains and sea separated communities from one another, hundreds of small, independent city-states grew up rather than one large kingdom. Each valley, island, and coastal plain tended to develop its own identity, dialect, and government.

Summers in Greece are warm and dry, while winters are mild along the coast but can bring snow in the mountains. The soil is relatively poor compared to the great river valleys of Egypt or Mesopotamia, which meant that farming alone could not always support a growing population. This scarcity of good farmland was one of the forces that pushed Greeks to colonize distant shores.

The Aegean Sea, dotted with hundreds of islands, served as a natural highway for trade and communication. Greeks became skilled sailors out of necessity, and the sea connected them not only to each other but also to the older civilizations of the Near East, Egypt, and beyond.

In the south lay the Peloponnese, home to regions such as Laconia (where Sparta was located), Messenia, Elis, Achaia, Corinthia, Argolis, and Arcadia. The northern mainland — roughly modern Central Greece — included Boeotia (home of Thebes), Attica (home of Athens), Phocis, and Aetolia. Further north lay Thessaly, Epirus, and Macedonia. To the east, across the Aegean, the coast of Anatolia (modern Turkey) was home to important Greek settlements in a region known as Ionia.

The history of Ancient Greece is traditionally divided into several major periods:

• Mycenaean civilization (c. 1600–1100 BC) — The earliest Greek civilization, known for its warrior culture and palace complexes. This is the world described in Homer's epics.
• Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100–800 BC) — A period of decline following the collapse of Mycenaean civilization. Writing was lost and population dropped.
• Archaic period (c. 800–500 BC) — City-states formed, the Greek alphabet was invented, colonization spread across the Mediterranean, and the first steps toward democracy were taken.
• Classical period (c. 500–323 BC) — The height of Greek civilization. This era saw the Greco-Persian Wars, the Golden Age of Athens, the Peloponnesian War, and the conquests of Alexander the Great.
• Hellenistic period (323–146 BC) — After Alexander's death, Greek culture spread across the Middle East and Central Asia under his successor kingdoms.
• Roman Greece (146 BC – 330 AD) — Greece came under Roman control, but Greek culture deeply influenced Roman civilization.
• Late Antiquity (330–529 AD) — The final phase, marked by the rise of Christianity and the transition to the Byzantine Empire.

The earliest major Greek civilization was the Mycenaean civilization, which flourished from roughly 1600 to 1100 BC. Named after the city of Mycenae in the northeastern Peloponnese, this was a warrior society ruled by powerful kings who lived in fortified palace complexes. Other important Mycenaean centers included Athens, Pylos, Thebes, and Tiryns.

The Mycenaeans were influenced by — and eventually conquered — the older Minoan civilization on the island of Crete, which had flourished since around 2000 BC. The Minoans had developed a sophisticated culture with elaborate palaces, vivid artwork, and a writing system called Linear A. Around 1400 BC, the Mycenaeans took control of Crete and adapted Minoan script into their own system, Linear B, which is the earliest known form of written Greek.

The Mycenaean world is the historical setting behind Homer's great epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. While these poems were composed centuries later and mix fact with legend, they preserve echoes of Mycenaean warfare, politics, and daily life — including the legendary Trojan War.

Around 1100 BC, Mycenaean civilization collapsed. The reasons are still debated among historians: possible causes include invasions, internal conflict, natural disasters, and disruptions to the trade networks that sustained palace economies. This collapse was part of a wider crisis across the eastern Mediterranean known as the Bronze Age collapse, which also devastated civilizations in Anatolia, Egypt, and the Near East.

Greece entered a period often called the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100–800 BC). During this time, the population declined sharply, trade networks broke down, and — most strikingly — the Greeks lost the ability to write. Linear B script was forgotten entirely. Large political structures disappeared, and Greece fragmented into small, scattered communities. The Greeks themselves later attributed this upheaval to an invasion by the Dorians, a group of Greek-speaking people from the north, though the archaeological evidence for a single dramatic invasion is thin.

Despite the name "Dark Ages," this period was not entirely without progress. The foundations of later Greek culture were quietly being laid: new styles of pottery appeared, ironworking replaced bronze technology, and the social structures that would give rise to the city-state were slowly taking shape.

Around the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from its long decline. The most transformative development of this era was the invention of the Greek alphabet. The Greeks borrowed the writing system of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people from the coast of modern Lebanon, and modified it by adding letters for vowel sounds — something no previous alphabet had done consistently. This innovation made writing far more flexible and accessible. The Greek alphabet would later be adapted by the Etruscans and then the Romans, eventually becoming the Latin alphabet used across much of the world today.

With literacy restored, Greek culture experienced a renaissance. The earliest Greek literature dates from this period, including the epic poems of Homer (the Iliad and the Odyssey) and the works of Hesiod, who wrote about farming, mythology, and the origins of the gods. The first recorded Olympic Games were held in Olympia in 776 BC — an event traditionally used to mark the beginning of Greek historical records.

The most important political development of the Archaic period was the rise of the polis, or city-state. A polis typically consisted of an urban center and the surrounding countryside under its control. Each was fully independent, with its own government, laws, army, and local identity. This fragmented political landscape was shaped by Greece's mountainous terrain: every valley, island, and coastal plain was naturally separated from its neighbors.

Despite their fierce independence, the Greeks recognized that they were one people. They shared the same religion, the same basic culture, and the same language (though with many regional dialects). They gathered for shared religious festivals and athletic competitions — above all, the Olympic Games — and consulted common oracles such as the famous Oracle at Delphi. Yet political unity was rare and usually short-lived.

Most city-states began as small kingdoms, but over time power shifted away from single rulers toward councils of wealthy aristocrats — a system called oligarchy (from the Greek for "rule by the few"). However, oligarchic rule often created deep tensions between the rich and the poor.

In many cities, ambitious leaders called tyrants seized power. In ancient Greek, the word "tyrant" did not carry the same negative meaning it has today — it simply meant someone who took power outside the normal system. Some tyrants were popular reformers who improved life for ordinary citizens; others were oppressive. Tyranny was common across the Greek world during the 7th and 6th centuries BC.

In Athens, a series of reformers gradually moved the city toward a new form of government. Draco created Athens's first written law code in 621 BC — his laws were famously harsh (the modern word "draconian" comes from his name). Solon, appointed in 594 BC, introduced reforms that eased the burden on the poor and gave more citizens a voice in government. After a period of tyranny under Peisistratos and his sons, the reformer Cleisthenes reorganized Athenian government around 508 BC, laying the foundations for the world's first democracy.

During the Archaic period, the Greek population grew beyond what the limited farmland of the mainland could support. In response, city-states sent groups of citizens to establish colonies — new, independent city-states — across the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.

From roughly 750 to 500 BC, Greek colonies spread in all directions. To the east, Greeks settled the coast of Anatolia, Cyprus, and the shores of the Black Sea, reaching as far as modern Ukraine and Russia. To the west, they colonized Southern Italy and Sicily so extensively that the region became known as Magna Graecia ("Greater Greece"). Greeks also founded cities in southern France, Corsica, eastern Spain, Egypt, and Libya.

Many modern cities trace their origins to these Greek colonies: Syracuse (from Syracusae), Naples (from Neapolis, meaning "New City"), Marseille (from Massalia), and Istanbul (from Byzantion). Unlike Roman colonies, which remained under the authority of Rome, Greek colonies were fully independent. However, they maintained cultural and emotional ties to their founding city, and they played a vital role in spreading Greek language, culture, and trade networks across the ancient world.

The polis was the basic unit of Greek political life, and it was unlike anything else in the ancient world. While most neighboring peoples were organized into kingdoms ruling large territories or tribal groups, the Greeks lived in hundreds of small, self-governing communities.

Each polis was fiercely independent. Citizens — typically free-born adult men — had the right to participate in their city's political life, though the exact form of participation varied widely. Some city-states were democracies, others were oligarchies, and a few retained kings. Wars between city-states were common, and shifting alliances kept the political landscape in constant flux.

Over time, some city-states formed leagues — alliances for mutual defense or shared interests. The most important of these were the Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta), the Delian League (led by Athens), and later the League of Corinth (led by Macedonia). Membership in these leagues was sometimes voluntary and sometimes enforced by the dominant city.

By the 6th century BC, four city-states had risen above the rest in power and influence: Corinth, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens. The rivalry between Sparta and Athens, in particular, would define much of the Classical period.

The Spartan polis was located in Laconia, a relatively poor and isolated region of the southern Peloponnese. In the 8th century BC, Sparta conquered neighboring Messenia and enslaved its population, who became known as helots. The helots were forced to farm the land and surrender much of their harvest to their Spartan masters.

Because the helots vastly outnumbered the Spartans and deeply resented their enslavement, Spartan society became intensely militarized. Every Spartan male citizen was required to leave home at age seven and enter a rigorous military training program called the agoge. Spartan soldiers were renowned throughout Greece as the finest warriors on foot — disciplined, fearless, and relentless.

Sparta's government was unusual: it had two hereditary kings who led the army in war, a council of elders called the Gerousia (similar to a senate), and five annually elected officials called ephors who supervised the kings. According to tradition, this system was established by the legendary lawgiver Lycurgus.

Spartan women had more freedoms than women in most other Greek city-states. They were expected to be physically fit so they could bear strong children, and they managed households and property while the men were away at war.

Athens was located in Attica, a fertile coastal region of southeastern Greece. In contrast to the military focus of Sparta, Athens became a center for the arts, philosophy, commerce, and learning. The Athenian statesman Pericles famously called Athens "the school of Greece."

Athens developed the world's first known democracy. After overthrowing their last tyrant around 508 BC, the Athenians created a system in which citizens gathered in an assembly (the Ecclesia) to debate and vote directly on laws and policies. This was direct democracy — citizens themselves made decisions rather than electing representatives. However, citizenship was limited: women, slaves, and foreign residents (metics) could not participate.

Athens was also a major naval power. Its fleet of fast warships called triremes dominated the Aegean Sea and formed the backbone of the Delian League. The wealth that flowed into Athens from trade and tribute funded magnificent building projects — including the Parthenon — and supported an extraordinary flowering of culture.

The contrast between Sparta and Athens shaped much of Greek history. Sparta excelled on land; Athens ruled the sea. Sparta valued discipline and obedience; Athens celebrated individual achievement and open debate. Their rivalry would eventually erupt into a devastating war that weakened all of Greece.

The Greeks experimented with many forms of government, and their political vocabulary — democracy, oligarchy, tyranny, aristocracy — has entered languages around the world.

In the earliest period, most city-states were ruled by kings (monarchy). Over time, power in most cities shifted to a small group of wealthy nobles (oligarchy). When ordinary citizens grew frustrated with aristocratic rule, popular leaders sometimes seized power as tyrants. Some tyrants governed well and were loved by the people; others were cruel.

The most revolutionary development was democracy, pioneered in Athens. Under the Athenian system, any male citizen over 18 could attend the Ecclesia, where all major decisions were made by majority vote. Government officials were chosen by lottery rather than election — the Athenians believed this was fairer than elections, which tended to favor the wealthy and well-known. Military generals (strategoi), however, were elected because the job required proven expertise.

Athens also developed a system of ostracism, in which citizens could vote to exile any person they considered a threat to democracy for ten years. This was meant to prevent any individual from becoming too powerful.

Not everyone benefited from Athenian democracy. Women had no political rights. Slaves — who may have made up a third of the population — had no rights at all. Foreign residents (metics) could live and work in Athens but could not vote or own land. Of roughly 150,000 residents of Attica, only about 30,000 were full citizens with political rights.

Sparta, meanwhile, maintained its unique dual monarchy throughout the Classical period — an exception to the general Greek trend toward broader participation in government.

At the start of the 5th century BC, the Greek cities along the coast of Anatolia (known as Ionia) were under the control of the Persian Empire, the largest and most powerful state in the world at the time. In 499 BC, these cities rose up in the Ionian Revolt. Athens and the city of Eretria sent ships to help the rebels, who managed to burn the Persian regional capital of Sardis before being crushed.

The Persian King Darius I did not forget Athens's involvement. In 490 BC, he sent a large invasion force across the Aegean to punish Athens and bring Greece under Persian control.

The Persian army — estimated at 20,000 to 25,000 soldiers — landed at Marathon, on the coast of Attica. They were met by roughly 10,000 Athenians and 1,000 soldiers from the small city of Plataea. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Greeks attacked and won a decisive victory. According to legend, a runner named Pheidippides raced from Marathon to Athens (about 40 kilometers) to announce the victory — inspiring the modern marathon race.

The victory at Marathon was a turning point. It proved that Persian forces could be beaten, and it gave Athens enormous confidence and prestige.

Ten years later, Darius's son Xerxes I assembled a vastly larger force — ancient sources claim hundreds of thousands of troops, though modern historians estimate perhaps 100,000–150,000 — for a full-scale invasion of Greece. This time, a coalition of 31 Greek city-states, led by Sparta and Athens, prepared to resist.

The first major battle took place at Thermopylae ("the Hot Gates") in 480 BC, a narrow mountain pass in central Greece. A small Greek force led by the Spartan King Leonidas I and his 300 elite Spartan warriors held the pass for several days against the entire Persian army. When a traitor showed the Persians a path around the pass, Leonidas dismissed most of the Greek army and fought to the death with his remaining force, buying crucial time for the rest of Greece to prepare.

After Thermopylae, the Persians advanced into Attica and burned Athens, which had been evacuated. But the Athenian fleet, commanded by Themistocles, lured the Persian navy into the narrow strait near the island of Salamis. In the confined waters, the larger Persian fleet could not maneuver effectively, and the Greeks won a crushing naval victory.

The following year (479 BC), a combined Greek army led by the Spartan general Pausanias destroyed the remaining Persian land forces at the Battle of Plataea. The Persian invasion of Greece was over.

The Greek victory over Persia was one of the most significant events in Western history. A small collection of independent city-states had defeated the world's largest empire, preserving the political and cultural independence that allowed Greek civilization to flourish. Athens, which had played the leading role at sea, emerged from the wars as the most powerful city in Greece.

Under Athenian leadership, the Delian League was formed — an alliance of Greek city-states originally created to defend against future Persian attacks. Member states contributed ships or money to a common treasury, initially kept on the island of Delos. Over time, however, the Delian League transformed from a voluntary alliance into what was effectively an Athenian empire, as Athens used the league's treasury to fund its own building projects and punished any state that tried to leave.

The period from roughly 480 to 404 BC is often called the Golden Age of Athens. Flush with wealth from the Delian League and confident from its victories over Persia, Athens experienced an extraordinary flowering of culture, art, and intellectual life.

The dominant figure of this era was Pericles (c. 495–429 BC), a statesman and general who led Athens for over 30 years. Under his leadership, Athens rebuilt the temples destroyed by the Persians — most famously the Parthenon on the Acropolis, a masterpiece of architecture dedicated to the goddess Athena. Pericles also strengthened democracy, extended Athenian power, and attracted thinkers and artists from across the Greek world.

This was the age of the great Athenian dramatists: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote tragedies that explored human suffering, fate, and the relationship between mortals and gods, while Aristophanes wrote comedies that mocked politicians, philosophers, and social customs. Greek theatre, performed in open-air amphitheatres, was both entertainment and civic participation — attending the annual dramatic festivals was considered a civic duty.

Philosophy also thrived. Socrates (c. 470–399 BC) pioneered a method of questioning that challenged people to examine their assumptions — the "Socratic method" still used in education today. His student Plato (c. 428–348 BC) founded the Academy, one of the first institutions of higher learning in the Western world, and wrote philosophical dialogues exploring justice, beauty, and the nature of reality. Plato's student Aristotle (384–322 BC) made groundbreaking contributions to logic, biology, ethics, politics, and virtually every field of knowledge.

Herodotus (c. 484–425 BC), often called the "father of history," wrote the first comprehensive narrative history, chronicling the Greco-Persian Wars. Thucydides (c. 460–400 BC) followed with his rigorous account of the Peloponnesian War, setting new standards for historical analysis.

In medicine, Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BC) emphasized natural causes of disease rather than supernatural explanations. The Hippocratic Oath, a code of medical ethics attributed to him, is still referenced by doctors today.

As Athens grew wealthier and more powerful through the Delian League, the other Greek city-states became increasingly alarmed. Sparta, leading the Peloponnesian League, saw Athens's expansion as a direct threat. Tensions escalated throughout the 440s and 430s BC, fueled by trade disputes, conflicts over colonies, and mutual suspicion.

In 431 BC, war finally erupted between Athens and its allies on one side and Sparta and its allies on the other. This conflict, the Peloponnesian War, would last 27 years and devastate the Greek world.

The war's early years followed a predictable pattern: Sparta's superior army invaded Attica each summer, ravaging the countryside, while the Athenians sheltered behind their city walls and used their navy to raid Spartan allies. Pericles's strategy was to avoid land battles and rely on Athenian naval superiority.

However, in 430 BC, a catastrophic plague swept through overcrowded Athens, killing thousands — including Pericles himself. The plague shattered Athenian morale but did not end the war.

Fighting continued inconclusively for years. In 421 BC, both sides agreed to the Peace of Nicias, but the truce was fragile and lasted only six years.

In 415 BC, Athens made a fateful decision: it launched a massive naval expedition to conquer Syracuse, a powerful city in Sicily allied with Sparta. The Sicilian Expedition was a catastrophe. The entire Athenian force — ships, soldiers, and generals — was destroyed. It was the worst military disaster in Athenian history.

After Sicily, Athens's allies began to rebel, and Persia — seeking revenge for its earlier defeats — began funding the Spartan navy. Despite some Athenian victories, the tide had turned. In 405 BC, the Spartan commander Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet at the Battle of Aegospotami and blockaded Athens's harbor. Starving and surrounded, Athens surrendered in 404 BC.

Sparta imposed harsh terms. Athens was forced to tear down its defensive walls, surrender its remaining ships, and dissolve the Delian League. Sparta installed an oligarchic government known as the Thirty Tyrants, though the Athenians overthrew it within a year and restored democracy.

The Peloponnesian War left all of Greece weakened. Sparta had won, but it lacked the diplomatic skill and resources to lead effectively. The decades that followed saw a series of shifting power struggles among Sparta, Athens, Thebes, and Corinth — none of which could achieve lasting dominance.

The first half of the 4th century BC was a period of constant warfare among the leading Greek city-states. Sparta's heavy-handed rule provoked a coalition of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos into the Corinthian War (395–387 BC). Persia, eager to keep Greece divided, eventually imposed the Peace of Antalcidas (387 BC), which restored Persian control over the Greek cities of Anatolia.

In 371 BC, Thebes shocked the Greek world by defeating Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra, killing the Spartan king Cleombrotus I. The Theban general Epaminondas then invaded the Peloponnese and liberated Messenia, freeing the helots who had sustained the Spartan economy for centuries. Sparta never recovered.

But Theban dominance was also short-lived. Epaminondas was killed at the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BC, and no Greek city-state was strong enough to fill the vacuum. Into this power vacuum stepped Macedonia.

Philip II of Macedon (ruled 359–336 BC) was a brilliant military commander and cunning diplomat. He transformed Macedonia's army by developing the Macedonian phalanx, a devastating infantry formation that used long spears called sarissae (up to 6 meters in length).

Through a combination of military victories, strategic marriages, bribery, and alliances, Philip steadily expanded Macedonian power southward. In 338 BC, he defeated a combined Athenian-Theban army at the Battle of Chaeronea, effectively ending Greek city-state independence. He then organized most of the Greek states into the League of Corinth under his leadership, with the stated goal of launching a joint invasion of the Persian Empire.

Philip did not annex the Greek city-states or abolish their governments. Instead, he forced them into alliance — they governed themselves but were bound to follow Macedonian foreign policy. This approach allowed Philip to maintain control without provoking outright rebellion.

Philip was assassinated in 336 BC, and his 20-year-old son Alexander inherited the throne. After quickly putting down revolts in Greece and on Macedon's borders, Alexander turned his attention to his father's grand plan: the conquest of Persia.

In 334 BC, Alexander crossed into Anatolia with roughly 40,000 troops. Over the next decade, he achieved one of the most remarkable military campaigns in history:

• He defeated the Persian King Darius III at the Battle of Issus (333 BC) and the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), shattering Persian military power.
• He conquered Egypt, where he founded the city of Alexandria, which would become one of the greatest centers of learning in the ancient world.
• He pushed eastward through Central Asia to Bactria (modern Afghanistan) and into India, where his exhausted troops finally refused to go further.

By the time of his sudden death in Babylon in 323 BC, at the age of 32, Alexander had created the largest empire the world had yet seen, stretching from Greece to the borders of India.

Alexander's conquests spread Greek language, culture, and ideas across a vast area, creating a new Hellenistic ("Greek-like") civilization that blended Greek and Eastern traditions. The cities he founded became centers of Greek culture for centuries to come.

Alexander died without a clear heir, and his generals — known as the Diadochi ("successors") — fought savagely over his empire. Within a few decades, the empire had fractured into several large kingdoms:

• The Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, founded by Ptolemy, with its capital at Alexandria
• The Seleucid Empire in Syria, Persia, and much of the former Persian Empire, founded by Seleucus
• The Antigonid Kingdom in Macedonia and Greece, eventually established by Antigonus II
• Smaller kingdoms including the Attalids in Pergamon, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia, and the Indo-Greek Kingdom in what is now Pakistan and Afghanistan

The Hellenistic period saw Greek culture spread far beyond its Mediterranean homeland. Alexandria in Egypt became the intellectual capital of the ancient world, home to the famous Library of Alexandria and a center for science, philosophy, and literature. Antioch in Syria was another major Hellenistic capital.

Greek became the common language (koine) of trade, government, and learning across the eastern Mediterranean and beyond. Greek art, architecture, philosophy, and science blended with local traditions to create vibrant new cultural forms.

Advances in science and mathematics were remarkable. Euclid organized geometry into a systematic framework still taught today. Archimedes made discoveries in physics and engineering. Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth with surprising accuracy. The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek device discovered in a shipwreck, is considered the first known analog computer.

Within Greece itself, city-states formed two major leagues: the Achaean League (centered on the Peloponnese) and the Aetolian League (in central Greece). These leagues were often at war with each other and with the Antigonid kings of Macedonia.

Beginning in the late 3rd century BC, the growing power of the Roman Republic drew it into Greek affairs. Rome fought a series of wars against Macedonia, culminating in the complete absorption of Macedonia into the Roman state by 149 BC. In 146 BC, Rome destroyed the city of Corinth and effectively brought Greek independence to an end. Greece became part of the Roman Empire.

After the Roman conquest, Greece became a valued eastern province. The Romans deeply admired Greek culture — in fact, Roman culture was in many ways Greco-Roman, a blend of both traditions. Wealthy Romans sent their sons to study in Athens, and Greek remained the language of education and intellectual life across the eastern Roman Empire. Greek intellectuals like the physician Galen did much of their work in Rome itself.

In 330 AD, the Emperor Constantine made the Greek city of Byzantium — renamed Constantinople — the new capital of the Roman Empire. This marked the beginning of the Byzantine Empire, which preserved Greek language and culture for another thousand years.

The final chapter of ancient Greek civilization is the period of Christianization. In 380 AD, Emperor Theodosius I declared Christianity the state religion and began suppressing traditional Greek religious practices. Ancient temples were closed or converted into churches, and the Olympic Games — which had been held for over a thousand years — were banned. In 529 AD, Emperor Justinian I closed the Academy of Athens, the philosophical school founded by Plato nearly nine centuries earlier. This event is often used to mark the symbolic end of Ancient Greece.

Greek society was divided into several classes. At the top were citizens — free-born men who had the right to participate in politics, own property, and serve in the military. Below them were metics (foreign residents), who could live and work in a city but lacked political rights. At the bottom were slaves, who could be owned, bought, and sold. Slaves performed a wide range of work, from household chores to mining, farming, and skilled crafts.

The number of slaves varied by city-state, but they may have made up as much as a third of the population in some places. Unlike the hereditary slavery of later periods, Greek slaves could sometimes buy or earn their freedom.

Women's lives varied greatly depending on the city-state. In Athens, women had very limited rights. They could not vote, own significant property, or participate in political life. Their primary roles were managing the household, raising children, and overseeing domestic slaves. Upper-class women rarely left the home without a male escort.

In Sparta, women enjoyed far more freedom. They received physical training, could own and manage property, and had a stronger public presence. Spartans believed that strong, healthy mothers would produce strong warriors. Spartan women were known throughout Greece for their relative independence and outspokenness.

Education in Athens focused on producing well-rounded citizens. Boys learned reading, writing, mathematics, music, and gymnastics. Wealthier families hired private tutors, and older students could study with philosophers like Socrates or attend schools like Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum.

Athletic competition was central to Greek life. The Olympic Games, held every four years at Olympia, were the most prestigious, but there were also the Pythian Games, Nemean Games, and Isthmian Games. Athletes competed in events including foot races, wrestling, boxing, discus and javelin throwing, and chariot racing. Victors won great honor for themselves and their cities.

The Olympic Games were restricted to men, but women had their own athletic competition — the Heraean Games — also held at Olympia.

The Greeks were polytheistic, worshipping many gods and goddesses who were believed to live on Mount Olympus. The most important were Zeus (king of the gods), Hera (his wife and goddess of marriage), Athena (goddess of wisdom), Apollo (god of the sun, music, and prophecy), Poseidon (god of the sea), Ares (god of war), and many others.

Religion was woven into every aspect of Greek life. Cities built temples to their patron gods, held festivals with sacrifices and processions, and consulted oracles — priests or priestesses believed to communicate the gods' will. The most famous oracle was the Pythia at Delphi, consulted by individuals and city-states alike before making important decisions.

Greek religion did not have sacred scriptures or a unified clergy. Instead, myths about the gods were passed down through poetry — especially Homer's epics and Hesiod's Theogony — and varied from region to region.

Ancient Greece's influence on the modern world is vast and enduring. Greek ideas form the foundation of Western thought in many fields:

Politics: The Greeks invented democracy and developed concepts of citizenship, political debate, and rule of law that continue to shape governments today.

Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle established the Western tradition of philosophical inquiry. Their questions about ethics, knowledge, justice, and the good life remain at the heart of philosophy.

Science and Mathematics: Greek thinkers pioneered systematic observation and logical reasoning. Euclid's geometry, Archimedes' physics, and Hippocrates' medicine laid groundwork that endured for centuries.

Literature and Theatre: The epics of Homer, the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes created literary forms that are still performed and studied.

Architecture: Greek architectural styles — particularly the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders — have influenced buildings from Roman temples to modern government buildings and museums.

Athletics: The modern Olympic Games, revived in 1896, were directly inspired by the ancient Greek tradition.

Language: Thousands of English words derive from Greek roots — including "democracy," "philosophy," "theater," "history," "biology," and "gymnasium." The Greek alphabet is the ancestor of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts used across much of the world.

When Rome conquered Greece militarily, Greece conquered Rome culturally. As the Roman poet Horace observed, "Captive Greece took captive her fierce conqueror." Through the Roman Empire and later the Renaissance, Greek ideas and ideals have been carried forward into the modern world, making Ancient Greece truly the cradle of Western civilization.