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The Roman Kingdom (Latin: Regnum Romanum), also called the Roman monarchy or the regal period, was the earliest stage of Roman history. It lasted from about 753 to 509 BC — roughly 244 years. During this time, the city of Rome and the land around it were ruled by kings.
According to tradition, seven kings ruled Rome during this period. The kingdom began with Romulus, the legendary founder of the city, and ended when the last king, Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud), was overthrown in a revolution. After that, Rome became a republic.
Very little is known about this period for certain. No written records from the time of the kings have survived, and the Gauls destroyed many of Rome's early historical documents when they sacked the city in 390 BC. Most of what we know comes from later Roman writers such as Livy, Plutarch, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who based their accounts largely on oral tradition — stories passed down through generations by word of mouth.
The location of Rome was no accident. The site had several natural advantages that helped it grow into a great city.
The city was built on and around a group of hills — traditionally called the seven hills of Rome — which provided easily defensible high ground in the middle of a wide, fertile plain. The Palatine Hill, one of the most central and easily fortified hills, is traditionally considered the spot where Romulus founded the city. Other important hills included the Capitoline Hill (which became the religious center), the Aventine Hill, and the Quirinal Hill.
Between these hills lay a marshy valley that would eventually be drained and turned into the Roman Forum, the heart of Roman public life for centuries.
Perhaps most importantly, the site included a shallow crossing point (called a ford) on the Tiber river. This ford made Rome a natural hub for trade and travel in central Italy. Whoever controlled this crossing point controlled a major route through the region.
According to Roman mythology, Rome was founded on 21 April 753 BC by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who were said to be the sons of Mars, the god of war, and Rhea Silvia, a Vestal Virgin (a priestess of the goddess Vesta).
The story begins with the brothers' grandfather, Numitor, who was the rightful king of the nearby city of Alba Longa. His brother Amulius overthrew him and seized the throne. To prevent any future rivals, Amulius forced Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a Vestal Virgin, which meant she was supposed to remain unmarried and childless. But according to the legend, the god Mars fathered twin sons with her — Romulus and Remus.
When Amulius discovered the twins, he ordered them drowned in the Tiber. Instead, the infants washed ashore and were rescued by a she-wolf, who nursed them in a cave called the Lupercal. They were later found and raised by a shepherd named Faustulus.
When the twins grew up and learned their true identity, they overthrew Amulius and restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne of Alba Longa. They then decided to found a new city of their own near the spot where they had been rescued. However, the brothers quarreled over where to build the city and which of them should rule it. Romulus killed Remus and became the first king, naming the city Roma after himself.
A replica of Romulus's hut (the Casa Romuli) was carefully maintained in the center of Rome all the way until the end of the Roman Empire, over a thousand years later.
Archaeologists have found evidence that people had been living in the area around Rome since about 1000 BC. By the 8th century BC, small villages on the hilltops were gradually growing together into a single settlement. The draining of the marshy valley between the hills — which became the Roman Forum — was a major step in turning these scattered villages into a true city.
The traditional founding date of 753 BC was calculated centuries later by the Roman scholar Varro, and modern historians treat it as approximate at best. Still, the archaeological evidence roughly matches the traditional timeline: by the mid-700s BC, something recognizably city-like was taking shape on the hills above the Tiber.
The king of Rome held enormous power. His authority came from a legal concept called imperium — essentially supreme command over both the military and the law. The king served as commander-in-chief of the army, chief judge in legal disputes, and head of the state religion, all at the same time. His imperium was granted for life and protected him from ever being put on trial for his actions.
The king's visible symbols of authority included twelve lictors (ceremonial attendants) who walked before him carrying fasces — bundles of rods with an axe, symbolizing the power to punish. He also wore a distinctive purple toga and sat on a special chair called a curule seat.
As head of the state religion, the king served as Rome's chief augur — a priest who interpreted the will of the gods by observing signs in nature, especially the flight patterns of birds. No important public business could be conducted without first consulting the auspices (divine signs). This made the king a kind of bridge between the Roman people and their gods. In fact, the Latin word pontifex (which later became a title for high priests) literally means "bridge-builder."
According to legend, Romulus created the Roman Senate by personally selecting 100 of the most respected and noble men to serve as his advisory council. He called them patres (fathers), and their descendants became the patricians — the hereditary aristocratic class that would dominate Roman politics for centuries.
The early Senate eventually grew to 300 members, with representatives from each of Rome's three original tribes: the Ramnes (Latins), the Tities (Sabines), and the Luceres (Etruscans). Only the king had the power to appoint new senators.
However, the Senate had very limited power during the monarchy. It could not meet on its own — only the king could call it into session. It could advise the king, but the king was free to ignore its advice. The one exception was that the king needed the Senate's approval to declare war on a foreign nation.
Romulus also organized the Roman people into 30 groups called curiae, which formed the basis of the Curiate Assembly — the first popular assembly of Rome. The curiae were reportedly named after 30 Sabine women (see the Sabine Women story below).
The Curiate Assembly had the formal power to approve or reject laws proposed by the king, and it officially voted to grant each new king his imperium. But like the Senate, the assembly had little real independence — it could only discuss matters that the king brought before it.
One of the most unusual features of the Roman Kingdom was that kingship was not hereditary. When a king died, power did not automatically pass to his son. Instead, Rome entered a period called an interregnum (literally "between reigns").
During the interregnum, supreme power returned to the Senate. The senators would appoint one of their own as interrex ("between-king") for a five-day term. If no new king was agreed upon, another senator would take over for another five days, and so on until a suitable candidate was found.
Once a nominee was chosen, three things had to happen before he could take office. First, the Senate had to approve him. Second, an augur had to confirm that the gods approved his appointment through favorable signs. Third, the Curiate Assembly had to vote to grant him imperium. In theory, the people elected their leader — but in practice, the Senate controlled most of the process.
Roman tradition names seven kings who ruled from the city's founding to the establishment of the Republic. While the historicity of the earliest kings is debated, the later kings are generally considered to be based on real people. Here is the traditional list:
| Reign | King | Origin | Notable achievements |
|---|---|---|---|
| 753–716 BC | Romulus | Latin | Founded the city, created the Senate, organized the army and the curiae |
| 715–672 BC | Numa Pompilius | Sabine | Established Rome's religious institutions, reformed the calendar, maintained peace |
| 672–640 BC | Tullus Hostilius | Latin | Warlike king; conquered Alba Longa, built the Curia Hostilia (Senate house) |
| 640–616 BC | Ancus Marcius | Sabine | Built Rome's first bridge, founded the port of Ostia, built the first prison |
| 616–578 BC | Tarquinius Priscus | Etruscan | Began building the Forum and Circus Maximus, expanded the Senate to 200 |
| 578–534 BC | Servius Tullius | Etruscan | Created the census, built the first city wall, established new citizen classes |
| 534–509 BC | Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud) | Etruscan | Completed the Temple of Jupiter; ruled as a tyrant; overthrown in 509 BC |
Note: These dates follow the traditional chronology given by Livy. Modern scholars consider the earlier dates uncertain. The average reign length of about 35 years is suspiciously long and may not be historically accurate.
Romulus is the legendary founder and first king of Rome. After building the city's first fortifications on the Palatine Hill, he opened Rome to all comers — men of any social class, including slaves and free men without distinction, were welcomed as citizens. This policy of openness would remain a characteristic of Rome throughout its history.
To populate his new city with women, Romulus organized an event that became one of the most notorious stories in Roman history: the Rape of the Sabine Women (the Latin word raptio means "seizure" or "abduction," not necessarily sexual violence). Romulus invited the neighboring Sabines to a festival, and during the celebration, the Romans seized the Sabine women as wives.
War broke out as a result. After several battles, the Sabine women themselves stepped between the two armies and begged for peace, arguing that they did not want to see their fathers and husbands kill each other. The Romans and Sabines agreed to unite into a single community, with Romulus and the Sabine king Titus Tatius ruling jointly.
After reigning for 37 years, Romulus disappeared mysteriously while reviewing his troops on the Campus Martius. Some claimed he was taken up to heaven in a whirlwind and became the god Quirinus. Others suspected the patricians had murdered him.
After Romulus's death, there was a one-year interregnum before the Sabine Numa Pompilius was chosen as the second king. He was known for his justice and piety.
Numa's 43-year reign was a time of peace. He built a temple to Janus, the two-faced god of beginnings and endings. The doors of this temple were left open during wartime and closed during peace — and according to tradition, they remained closed for the entire duration of Numa's reign.
Numa established many of Rome's most important religious institutions. He created the order of Vestal Virgins, the Salii (priests of Mars who performed ritual war dances), and the flamens (priests dedicated to individual gods like Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus). He also established the office of pontifex maximus — the chief priest of Rome, a title that would eventually be adopted by the Catholic popes.
Numa also reformed the Roman calendar, adding the months of January and February to bring the total from ten to twelve months.
The third king was Tullus Hostilius, who was as warlike as Numa had been peaceful. He waged war against Alba Longa, the mother city from which Romulus and Remus had originally come. Rome won, and Tullus ordered Alba Longa completely destroyed, relocating its entire population to Rome.
Tullus also built a new meeting house for the Senate, the Curia Hostilia, which remained in use for over 560 years. According to Livy, Tullus neglected the worship of the gods, and toward the end of his life, he became ill and superstitious. When he begged Jupiter for help, the god responded by striking him with lightning, burning the king and his house to ashes.
The fourth king, Ancus Marcius, was a grandson of Numa Pompilius and, like his grandfather, preferred peace to war. He fought only defensive wars, mainly against the Latins.
Ancus made several important contributions to Rome's infrastructure. He built the first bridge across the Tiber, fortified the Janiculum hill on the river's western bank, and founded the port city of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber on the Tyrrhenian Sea. He also established Rome's first salt works (salt was an extremely valuable commodity in the ancient world) and built the city's first aqueduct and first prison.
Through diplomacy and military strength, Ancus peacefully absorbed several nearby Latin communities into Rome, settling their populations on the Aventine Hill. These newcomers formed an early base of the plebeian class.
The fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin the Elder), was the first king of Etruscan origin — a major turning point in Roman history. The Etruscans were the dominant civilization in central Italy at this time, and their influence on Rome was enormous.
Tarquinius Priscus arrived in Rome as an immigrant and gained the favor of King Ancus, who eventually adopted him. After Ancus died, Tarquinius won the kingship.
He was an ambitious builder. He expanded the Senate from 100 to 200 members by adding representatives from conquered Etruscan communities. He began constructing the Cloaca Maxima — a massive sewer system that drained the swampy ground between Rome's hills. In the drained area, he began building the Roman Forum, which became the city's main public square. He also started construction of the Circus Maximus, a giant stadium for chariot races, and laid the foundations for the great Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill.
Tarquinius Priscus was the first Roman to celebrate a triumph — a grand military parade through the city to honor a victorious commander. He reigned for 38 years before being assassinated by the sons of Ancus Marcius.
Servius Tullius, the sixth king, was Tarquinius Priscus's son-in-law. Ancient sources record that he was the son of a slave woman — if true, this would make him one of history's most remarkable examples of social mobility.
Servius carried out some of the most important reforms of the entire regal period. He conducted Rome's first census — a systematic count of all citizens and their property. Based on the results, he divided the population into five economic classes. This became the basis for a new assembly, the Centuriate Assembly, in which voting power was weighted by wealth. He also created four urban tribes based on geography, which formed the basis for the Tribal Assembly.
Servius built the first defensive wall encircling all seven hills of Rome. Known as the Servian Wall, sections of it can still be seen in Rome today (though the surviving remains are mostly from a later rebuilding in the 4th century BC).
Servius reigned for 44 years. He was murdered in a conspiracy organized by his own daughter Tullia and her husband, who became the last king.
The seventh and final king, Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud), came to power through violence — he and his wife had arranged the murder of Servius Tullius. He is the only king in Roman tradition who did not come to power through legitimate means.
Tarquinius Superbus was a capable military leader who secured Rome's position as the leading power among the Latin cities. He also completed the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill and continued work on the Cloaca Maxima and the Circus Maximus.
However, his reign is remembered primarily for tyranny. He ruled without consulting the Senate, judged capital cases without advisors (creating an atmosphere of fear), and showed contempt for Roman customs and traditions.
The event that brought down the kingdom was a crime committed by the king's son. According to tradition, Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son, raped a noblewoman named Lucretia. After telling her family what had happened, Lucretia took her own life to avoid what she saw as the dishonor of the situation.
Lucretia's kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus, seized on the outrage to lead a revolution against the king. With the support of other leading Romans, including Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (Lucretia's husband), Brutus summoned the Senate and had Tarquinius and his entire family expelled from Rome in 509 BC.
Brutus and Collatinus became Rome's first two consuls — elected officials who served one-year terms and shared the power that had previously belonged to the king alone. This was the beginning of the Roman Republic, which would last for nearly five centuries.
The Etruscan ruler Lars Porsena attempted to restore the Tarquins to power, but this effort ultimately failed. Some ancient accounts suggest that Porsena may actually have captured Rome briefly before withdrawing, though the traditional Roman version of events minimizes this embarrassing possibility.
Although the Roman Kingdom lasted only about 244 years, it established many of the institutions and traditions that defined Rome for the rest of its history.
The Senate, created by Romulus as a small advisory council, would grow into one of the most powerful governing bodies in the ancient world. The religious institutions established by Numa Pompilius — including the Vestal Virgins, the pontificate, and the system of augury — remained central to Roman life for centuries. The census and class system introduced by Servius Tullius became the foundation of Roman political organization under the Republic.
The concept of imperium — supreme executive authority — survived the overthrow of the kings. Under the Republic, imperium was granted to consuls and other senior officials, but only for limited terms, never for life. The Romans' experience with Tarquinius Superbus's tyranny gave them a deep and lasting distrust of one-man rule, which shaped their political thinking for generations.
Even the symbol of the fasces carried by the kings' lictors survived. It was adopted by the Republic as a symbol of governmental authority. Much later, the word "fascism" was derived from it in the 20th century.
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