Roman Kingdom

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The '''Roman Kingdom''' (Latin: ''Regnum Romanum''), also called the '''Roman monarchy''' or the '''regal period''', was the earliest stage of [[Ancient Rome|Roman history]]. It lasted from about 753 to 509 BC — roughly 244 years. During this time, the city of [[Rome]] and the land around it were ruled by kings.

According to tradition, seven kings ruled Rome during this period. The kingdom began with [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]], the legendary founder of the city, and ended when the last king, [[Tarquinius Superbus]] (Tarquin the Proud), was overthrown in a revolution. After that, Rome became a [[Roman Republic|republic]].

Very little is known about this period for certain. No written records from the time of the kings have survived, and the [[Gauls]] destroyed many of Rome's early historical documents when they sacked the city in 390 BC. Most of what we know comes from later Roman writers such as [[Livy]], [[Plutarch]], and [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]], who based their accounts largely on [[oral tradition]] — stories passed down through generations by word of mouth.

= Why Rome? The geography of the site =

The location of Rome was no accident. The site had several natural advantages that helped it grow into a great city.

The city was built on and around a group of hills — traditionally called the [[seven hills of Rome]] — which provided easily defensible high ground in the middle of a wide, fertile plain. The [[Palatine Hill]], one of the most central and easily fortified hills, is traditionally considered the spot where Romulus founded the city. Other important hills included the [[Capitoline Hill]] (which became the religious center), the [[Aventine Hill]], and the [[Quirinal Hill]].

Between these hills lay a marshy valley that would eventually be drained and turned into the [[Roman Forum]], the heart of Roman public life for centuries.

Perhaps most importantly, the site included a shallow crossing point (called a ford) on the [[Tiber]] river. This ford made Rome a natural hub for trade and travel in central [[Italy]]. Whoever controlled this crossing point controlled a major route through the region.

= The founding legend =

According to [[Roman mythology]], Rome was founded on 21 April 753 BC by the twin brothers [[Romulus and Remus]], who were said to be the sons of [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], the god of war, and [[Rhea Silvia]], a [[Vestal Virgin]] (a priestess of the goddess [[Vesta]]).

The story begins with the brothers' grandfather, [[Numitor]], who was the rightful king of the nearby city of [[Alba Longa]]. His brother [[Amulius]] overthrew him and seized the throne. To prevent any future rivals, Amulius forced Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a Vestal Virgin, which meant she was supposed to remain unmarried and childless. But according to the legend, the god Mars fathered twin sons with her — Romulus and Remus.

When Amulius discovered the twins, he ordered them drowned in the Tiber. Instead, the infants washed ashore and were rescued by a she-wolf, who nursed them in a cave called the [[Lupercal]]. They were later found and raised by a shepherd named Faustulus.

When the twins grew up and learned their true identity, they overthrew Amulius and restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne of Alba Longa. They then decided to found a new city of their own near the spot where they had been rescued. However, the brothers quarreled over where to build the city and which of them should rule it. Romulus killed Remus and became the first king, naming the city ''Roma'' after himself.

A replica of Romulus's hut (the ''[[Casa Romuli]]'') was carefully maintained in the center of Rome all the way until the end of the [[Roman Empire]], over a thousand years later.

== What really happened? ==

Archaeologists have found evidence that people had been living in the area around Rome since about 1000 BC. By the 8th century BC, small villages on the hilltops were gradually growing together into a single settlement. The draining of the marshy valley between the hills — which became the Roman Forum — was a major step in turning these scattered villages into a true city.

The traditional founding date of 753 BC was calculated centuries later by the Roman scholar [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], and modern historians treat it as approximate at best. Still, the archaeological evidence roughly matches the traditional timeline: by the mid-700s BC, something recognizably city-like was taking shape on the hills above the Tiber.

= How the kingdom was governed =

== The king's power ==

The king of Rome held enormous power. His authority came from a legal concept called ''[[imperium]]'' — essentially supreme command over both the military and the law. The king served as commander-in-chief of the army, chief judge in legal disputes, and head of the state religion, all at the same time. His imperium was granted for life and protected him from ever being put on trial for his actions.

The king's visible symbols of authority included twelve ''[[lictor]]s'' (ceremonial attendants) who walked before him carrying ''[[fasces]]'' — bundles of rods with an axe, symbolizing the power to punish. He also wore a distinctive purple ''[[toga]]'' and sat on a special chair called a ''[[curule seat]]''.

As head of the state religion, the king served as Rome's chief ''[[augur]]'' — a priest who interpreted the will of the gods by observing signs in nature, especially the flight patterns of birds. No important public business could be conducted without first consulting the ''auspices'' (divine signs). This made the king a kind of bridge between the Roman people and their gods. In fact, the Latin word ''[[pontifex]]'' (which later became a title for high priests) literally means "bridge-builder."

== The Senate ==

According to legend, Romulus created the [[Roman Senate]] by personally selecting 100 of the most respected and noble men to serve as his advisory council. He called them ''patres'' (fathers), and their descendants became the [[patricians]] — the hereditary aristocratic class that would dominate Roman politics for centuries.

The early Senate eventually grew to 300 members, with representatives from each of Rome's three original tribes: the ''Ramnes'' ([[Latins]]), the ''Tities'' ([[Sabines]]), and the ''Luceres'' ([[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]]). Only the king had the power to appoint new senators.

However, the Senate had very limited power during the monarchy. It could not meet on its own — only the king could call it into session. It could advise the king, but the king was free to ignore its advice. The one exception was that the king needed the Senate's approval to declare war on a foreign nation.

== The assemblies ==

Romulus also organized the Roman people into 30 groups called ''[[curia]]e'', which formed the basis of the [[Curiate Assembly]] — the first popular assembly of Rome. The curiae were reportedly named after 30 [[Sabines|Sabine]] women (see the Sabine Women story below).

The Curiate Assembly had the formal power to approve or reject laws proposed by the king, and it officially voted to grant each new king his ''imperium''. But like the Senate, the assembly had little real independence — it could only discuss matters that the king brought before it.

== How new kings were chosen ==

One of the most unusual features of the Roman Kingdom was that kingship was '''not hereditary'''. When a king died, power did not automatically pass to his son. Instead, Rome entered a period called an ''[[interregnum]]'' (literally "between reigns").

During the interregnum, supreme power returned to the Senate. The senators would appoint one of their own as ''[[interrex]]'' ("between-king") for a five-day term. If no new king was agreed upon, another senator would take over for another five days, and so on until a suitable candidate was found.

Once a nominee was chosen, three things had to happen before he could take office. First, the Senate had to approve him. Second, an augur had to confirm that the gods approved his appointment through favorable signs. Third, the Curiate Assembly had to vote to grant him ''imperium''. In theory, the people elected their leader — but in practice, the Senate controlled most of the process.

= The seven kings =

Roman tradition names seven kings who ruled from the city's founding to the establishment of the Republic. While the historicity of the earliest kings is debated, the later kings are generally considered to be based on real people. Here is the traditional list:

{| style="width: 100%; border: 2px solid #8B0000;"
|-
! style="background-color: #FFF8E7; color: #8B0000; width: 15%;" darkstyle="background-color: var(--wiki-surface); color: color-mix(in srgb, #8B0000 55%, #f5f5f7);" | Reign
! style="background-color: #FFF8E7; color: #8B0000; width: 18%;" darkstyle="background-color: var(--wiki-surface); color: color-mix(in srgb, #8B0000 55%, #f5f5f7);" | King
! style="background-color: #FFF8E7; color: #8B0000; width: 12%;" darkstyle="background-color: var(--wiki-surface); color: color-mix(in srgb, #8B0000 55%, #f5f5f7);" | Origin
! style="background-color: #FFF8E7; color: #8B0000;" darkstyle="background-color: var(--wiki-surface); color: color-mix(in srgb, #8B0000 55%, #f5f5f7);" | Notable achievements
|-
| 753–716 BC || '''[[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]]''' || [[Latins|Latin]] || Founded the city, created the Senate, organized the army and the curiae
|-
| 715–672 BC || '''[[Numa Pompilius]]''' || [[Sabines|Sabine]] || Established Rome's religious institutions, reformed the calendar, maintained peace
|-
| 672–640 BC || '''[[Tullus Hostilius]]''' || Latin || Warlike king; conquered [[Alba Longa]], built the [[Curia Hostilia]] (Senate house)
|-
| 640–616 BC || '''[[Ancus Marcius]]''' || Sabine || Built Rome's first bridge, founded the port of [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]], built the first prison
|-
| 616–578 BC || '''[[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus|Tarquinius Priscus]]''' || [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] || Began building the [[Roman Forum|Forum]] and [[Circus Maximus]], expanded the Senate to 200
|-
| 578–534 BC || '''[[Servius Tullius]]''' || Etruscan || Created the census, built the first city wall, established new citizen classes
|-
| 534–509 BC || '''[[Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud)]]''' || Etruscan || Completed the Temple of Jupiter; ruled as a tyrant; overthrown in 509 BC
|}

<small>''Note: These dates follow the traditional chronology given by [[Livy]]. Modern scholars consider the earlier dates uncertain. The average reign length of about 35 years is suspiciously long and may not be historically accurate.''</small>

== Romulus (753–716 BC) ==

Romulus is the legendary founder and first king of Rome. After building the city's first fortifications on the [[Palatine Hill]], he opened Rome to all comers — men of any social class, including slaves and free men without distinction, were welcomed as citizens. This policy of openness would remain a characteristic of Rome throughout its history.

To populate his new city with women, Romulus organized an event that became one of the most notorious stories in Roman history: the '''Rape of the Sabine Women''' (the Latin word ''raptio'' means "seizure" or "abduction," not necessarily sexual violence). Romulus invited the neighboring [[Sabines]] to a festival, and during the celebration, the Romans seized the Sabine women as wives.

War broke out as a result. After several battles, the Sabine women themselves stepped between the two armies and begged for peace, arguing that they did not want to see their fathers and husbands kill each other. The Romans and Sabines agreed to unite into a single community, with Romulus and the Sabine king [[Titus Tatius]] ruling jointly.

After reigning for 37 years, Romulus disappeared mysteriously while reviewing his troops on the [[Campus Martius]]. Some claimed he was taken up to heaven in a whirlwind and became the god [[Quirinus]]. Others suspected the patricians had murdered him.

== Numa Pompilius (715–672 BC) ==

After Romulus's death, there was a one-year interregnum before the Sabine [[Numa Pompilius]] was chosen as the second king. He was known for his justice and piety.

Numa's 43-year reign was a time of peace. He built a temple to [[Janus]], the two-faced god of beginnings and endings. The doors of this temple were left open during wartime and closed during peace — and according to tradition, they remained closed for the entire duration of Numa's reign.

Numa established many of Rome's most important religious institutions. He created the order of [[Vestal Virgins]], the ''[[Salii]]'' (priests of Mars who performed ritual war dances), and the ''[[flamen]]s'' (priests dedicated to individual gods like [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], Mars, and Quirinus). He also established the office of ''[[pontifex maximus]]'' — the chief priest of Rome, a title that would eventually be adopted by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic popes]].

Numa also reformed the [[Roman calendar]], adding the months of January and February to bring the total from ten to twelve months.

== Tullus Hostilius (672–640 BC) ==

The third king was [[Tullus Hostilius]], who was as warlike as Numa had been peaceful. He waged war against [[Alba Longa]], the mother city from which Romulus and Remus had originally come. Rome won, and Tullus ordered Alba Longa completely destroyed, relocating its entire population to Rome.

Tullus also built a new meeting house for the Senate, the [[Curia Hostilia]], which remained in use for over 560 years. According to Livy, Tullus neglected the worship of the gods, and toward the end of his life, he became ill and superstitious. When he begged Jupiter for help, the god responded by striking him with lightning, burning the king and his house to ashes.

== Ancus Marcius (640–616 BC) ==

The fourth king, [[Ancus Marcius]], was a grandson of Numa Pompilius and, like his grandfather, preferred peace to war. He fought only defensive wars, mainly against the [[Latins]].

Ancus made several important contributions to Rome's infrastructure. He built the first bridge across the [[Tiber]], fortified the [[Janiculum]] hill on the river's western bank, and founded the port city of [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]] at the mouth of the Tiber on the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]]. He also established Rome's first salt works (salt was an extremely valuable commodity in the ancient world) and built the city's first [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]] and first prison.

Through diplomacy and military strength, Ancus peacefully absorbed several nearby Latin communities into Rome, settling their populations on the [[Aventine Hill]]. These newcomers formed an early base of the [[plebeians|plebeian]] class.

== Tarquinius Priscus (616–578 BC) ==

The fifth king, [[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus|Tarquinius Priscus]] (Tarquin the Elder), was the first king of [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] origin — a major turning point in Roman history. The Etruscans were the dominant civilization in central Italy at this time, and their influence on Rome was enormous.

Tarquinius Priscus arrived in Rome as an immigrant and gained the favor of King Ancus, who eventually adopted him. After Ancus died, Tarquinius won the kingship.

He was an ambitious builder. He expanded the Senate from 100 to 200 members by adding representatives from conquered Etruscan communities. He began constructing the ''[[Cloaca Maxima]]'' — a massive sewer system that drained the swampy ground between Rome's hills. In the drained area, he began building the [[Roman Forum]], which became the city's main public square. He also started construction of the [[Circus Maximus]], a giant stadium for chariot races, and laid the foundations for the great Temple of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] on the [[Capitoline Hill]].

Tarquinius Priscus was the first Roman to celebrate a ''[[Roman triumph|triumph]]'' — a grand military parade through the city to honor a victorious commander. He reigned for 38 years before being assassinated by the sons of Ancus Marcius.

== Servius Tullius (578–534 BC) ==

[[Servius Tullius]], the sixth king, was Tarquinius Priscus's son-in-law. Ancient sources record that he was the son of a slave woman — if true, this would make him one of history's most remarkable examples of social mobility.

Servius carried out some of the most important reforms of the entire regal period. He conducted Rome's first ''[[census]]'' — a systematic count of all citizens and their property. Based on the results, he divided the population into five economic classes. This became the basis for a new assembly, the ''[[Centuriate Assembly]]'', in which voting power was weighted by wealth. He also created four urban ''tribes'' based on geography, which formed the basis for the ''[[Tribal Assembly]]''.

Servius built the first defensive wall encircling all seven hills of Rome. Known as the ''[[Servian Wall]]'', sections of it can still be seen in Rome today (though the surviving remains are mostly from a later rebuilding in the 4th century BC).

Servius reigned for 44 years. He was murdered in a conspiracy organized by his own daughter [[Tullia Minor|Tullia]] and her husband, who became the last king.

== Tarquinius Superbus (534–509 BC) ==

The seventh and final king, [[Tarquinius Superbus]] (Tarquin the Proud), came to power through violence — he and his wife had arranged the murder of Servius Tullius. He is the only king in Roman tradition who did not come to power through legitimate means.

Tarquinius Superbus was a capable military leader who secured Rome's position as the leading power among the [[Latin League|Latin cities]]. He also completed the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill and continued work on the Cloaca Maxima and the Circus Maximus.

However, his reign is remembered primarily for tyranny. He ruled without consulting the Senate, judged capital cases without advisors (creating an atmosphere of fear), and showed contempt for Roman customs and traditions.

= The overthrow of the monarchy =

The event that brought down the kingdom was a crime committed by the king's son. According to tradition, [[Sextus Tarquinius]], the king's son, raped a noblewoman named [[Lucretia]]. After telling her family what had happened, Lucretia took her own life to avoid what she saw as the dishonor of the situation.

Lucretia's kinsman, [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], seized on the outrage to lead a revolution against the king. With the support of other leading Romans, including [[Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus]] (Lucretia's husband), Brutus summoned the Senate and had Tarquinius and his entire family expelled from Rome in 509 BC.

Brutus and Collatinus became Rome's first two [[Roman consul|consuls]] — elected officials who served one-year terms and shared the power that had previously belonged to the king alone. This was the beginning of the [[Roman Republic]], which would last for nearly five centuries.

The Etruscan ruler [[Lars Porsena]] attempted to restore the Tarquins to power, but this effort ultimately failed. Some ancient accounts suggest that Porsena may actually have captured Rome briefly before withdrawing, though the traditional Roman version of events minimizes this embarrassing possibility.

= What the Kingdom left behind =

Although the Roman Kingdom lasted only about 244 years, it established many of the institutions and traditions that defined Rome for the rest of its history.

The '''Senate''', created by Romulus as a small advisory council, would grow into one of the most powerful governing bodies in the ancient world. The '''religious institutions''' established by Numa Pompilius — including the Vestal Virgins, the pontificate, and the system of augury — remained central to Roman life for centuries. The '''census''' and '''class system''' introduced by Servius Tullius became the foundation of Roman political organization under the Republic.

The concept of ''imperium'' — supreme executive authority — survived the overthrow of the kings. Under the Republic, ''imperium'' was granted to consuls and other senior officials, but only for limited terms, never for life. The Romans' experience with Tarquinius Superbus's tyranny gave them a deep and lasting distrust of one-man rule, which shaped their political thinking for generations.

Even the symbol of the ''[[fasces]]'' carried by the kings' lictors survived. It was adopted by the Republic as a symbol of governmental authority. Much later, the word "fascism" was derived from it in the 20th century.

= Notes =

{{Notelist}}

= See also =

* [[Ancient Rome]]
* [[Founding of Rome]]
* [[Romulus and Remus]]
* [[Roman Republic]]
* [[Etruscan civilization]]
* [[Roman Senate]]

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{{Ancient Rome topics Navbox}} The '''Roman Kingdom''' (Latin: ''Regnum Romanum''), also called the '''Roman monarchy''' or the '''regal period''', was the earliest stage of [[Ancient Rome|Roman history]]. It lasted from about 753 to 509 BC — roughly 244 years. During this time, the city of [[Rome]] and the land around it were ruled by kings. According to tradition, seven kings ruled Rome during this period. The kingdom began with [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]], the legendary founder of the city, and ended when the last king, [[Tarquinius Superbus]] (Tarquin the Proud), was overthrown in a revolution. After that, Rome became a [[Roman Republic|republic]]. Very little is known about this period for certain. No written records from the time of the kings have survived, and the [[Gauls]] destroyed many of Rome's early historical documents when they sacked the city in 390 BC. Most of what we know comes from later Roman writers such as [[Livy]], [[Plutarch]], and [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]], who based their accounts largely on [[oral tradition]] — stories passed down through generations by word of mouth. = Why Rome? The geography of the site = The location of Rome was no accident. The site had several natural advantages that helped it grow into a great city. The city was built on and around a group of hills — traditionally called the [[seven hills of Rome]] — which provided easily defensible high ground in the middle of a wide, fertile plain. The [[Palatine Hill]], one of the most central and easily fortified hills, is traditionally considered the spot where Romulus founded the city. Other important hills included the [[Capitoline Hill]] (which became the religious center), the [[Aventine Hill]], and the [[Quirinal Hill]]. Between these hills lay a marshy valley that would eventually be drained and turned into the [[Roman Forum]], the heart of Roman public life for centuries. Perhaps most importantly, the site included a shallow crossing point (called a ford) on the [[Tiber]] river. This ford made Rome a natural hub for trade and travel in central [[Italy]]. Whoever controlled this crossing point controlled a major route through the region. = The founding legend = According to [[Roman mythology]], Rome was founded on 21 April 753 BC by the twin brothers [[Romulus and Remus]], who were said to be the sons of [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], the god of war, and [[Rhea Silvia]], a [[Vestal Virgin]] (a priestess of the goddess [[Vesta]]). The story begins with the brothers' grandfather, [[Numitor]], who was the rightful king of the nearby city of [[Alba Longa]]. His brother [[Amulius]] overthrew him and seized the throne. To prevent any future rivals, Amulius forced Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a Vestal Virgin, which meant she was supposed to remain unmarried and childless. But according to the legend, the god Mars fathered twin sons with her — Romulus and Remus. When Amulius discovered the twins, he ordered them drowned in the Tiber. Instead, the infants washed ashore and were rescued by a she-wolf, who nursed them in a cave called the [[Lupercal]]. They were later found and raised by a shepherd named Faustulus. When the twins grew up and learned their true identity, they overthrew Amulius and restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne of Alba Longa. They then decided to found a new city of their own near the spot where they had been rescued. However, the brothers quarreled over where to build the city and which of them should rule it. Romulus killed Remus and became the first king, naming the city ''Roma'' after himself. A replica of Romulus's hut (the ''[[Casa Romuli]]'') was carefully maintained in the center of Rome all the way until the end of the [[Roman Empire]], over a thousand years later. == What really happened? == Archaeologists have found evidence that people had been living in the area around Rome since about 1000 BC. By the 8th century BC, small villages on the hilltops were gradually growing together into a single settlement. The draining of the marshy valley between the hills — which became the Roman Forum — was a major step in turning these scattered villages into a true city. The traditional founding date of 753 BC was calculated centuries later by the Roman scholar [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], and modern historians treat it as approximate at best. Still, the archaeological evidence roughly matches the traditional timeline: by the mid-700s BC, something recognizably city-like was taking shape on the hills above the Tiber. = How the kingdom was governed = == The king's power == The king of Rome held enormous power. His authority came from a legal concept called ''[[imperium]]'' — essentially supreme command over both the military and the law. The king served as commander-in-chief of the army, chief judge in legal disputes, and head of the state religion, all at the same time. His imperium was granted for life and protected him from ever being put on trial for his actions. The king's visible symbols of authority included twelve ''[[lictor]]s'' (ceremonial attendants) who walked before him carrying ''[[fasces]]'' — bundles of rods with an axe, symbolizing the power to punish. He also wore a distinctive purple ''[[toga]]'' and sat on a special chair called a ''[[curule seat]]''. As head of the state religion, the king served as Rome's chief ''[[augur]]'' — a priest who interpreted the will of the gods by observing signs in nature, especially the flight patterns of birds. No important public business could be conducted without first consulting the ''auspices'' (divine signs). This made the king a kind of bridge between the Roman people and their gods. In fact, the Latin word ''[[pontifex]]'' (which later became a title for high priests) literally means "bridge-builder." == The Senate == According to legend, Romulus created the [[Roman Senate]] by personally selecting 100 of the most respected and noble men to serve as his advisory council. He called them ''patres'' (fathers), and their descendants became the [[patricians]] — the hereditary aristocratic class that would dominate Roman politics for centuries. The early Senate eventually grew to 300 members, with representatives from each of Rome's three original tribes: the ''Ramnes'' ([[Latins]]), the ''Tities'' ([[Sabines]]), and the ''Luceres'' ([[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]]). Only the king had the power to appoint new senators. However, the Senate had very limited power during the monarchy. It could not meet on its own — only the king could call it into session. It could advise the king, but the king was free to ignore its advice. The one exception was that the king needed the Senate's approval to declare war on a foreign nation. == The assemblies == Romulus also organized the Roman people into 30 groups called ''[[curia]]e'', which formed the basis of the [[Curiate Assembly]] — the first popular assembly of Rome. The curiae were reportedly named after 30 [[Sabines|Sabine]] women (see the Sabine Women story below). The Curiate Assembly had the formal power to approve or reject laws proposed by the king, and it officially voted to grant each new king his ''imperium''. But like the Senate, the assembly had little real independence — it could only discuss matters that the king brought before it. == How new kings were chosen == One of the most unusual features of the Roman Kingdom was that kingship was '''not hereditary'''. When a king died, power did not automatically pass to his son. Instead, Rome entered a period called an ''[[interregnum]]'' (literally "between reigns"). During the interregnum, supreme power returned to the Senate. The senators would appoint one of their own as ''[[interrex]]'' ("between-king") for a five-day term. If no new king was agreed upon, another senator would take over for another five days, and so on until a suitable candidate was found. Once a nominee was chosen, three things had to happen before he could take office. First, the Senate had to approve him. Second, an augur had to confirm that the gods approved his appointment through favorable signs. Third, the Curiate Assembly had to vote to grant him ''imperium''. In theory, the people elected their leader — but in practice, the Senate controlled most of the process. = The seven kings = Roman tradition names seven kings who ruled from the city's founding to the establishment of the Republic. While the historicity of the earliest kings is debated, the later kings are generally considered to be based on real people. Here is the traditional list: {| style="width: 100%; border: 2px solid #8B0000;" |- ! style="background-color: #FFF8E7; color: #8B0000; width: 15%;" darkstyle="background-color: var(--wiki-surface); color: color-mix(in srgb, #8B0000 55%, #f5f5f7);" | Reign ! style="background-color: #FFF8E7; color: #8B0000; width: 18%;" darkstyle="background-color: var(--wiki-surface); color: color-mix(in srgb, #8B0000 55%, #f5f5f7);" | King ! style="background-color: #FFF8E7; color: #8B0000; width: 12%;" darkstyle="background-color: var(--wiki-surface); color: color-mix(in srgb, #8B0000 55%, #f5f5f7);" | Origin ! style="background-color: #FFF8E7; color: #8B0000;" darkstyle="background-color: var(--wiki-surface); color: color-mix(in srgb, #8B0000 55%, #f5f5f7);" | Notable achievements |- | 753–716 BC || '''[[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]]''' || [[Latins|Latin]] || Founded the city, created the Senate, organized the army and the curiae |- | 715–672 BC || '''[[Numa Pompilius]]''' || [[Sabines|Sabine]] || Established Rome's religious institutions, reformed the calendar, maintained peace |- | 672–640 BC || '''[[Tullus Hostilius]]''' || Latin || Warlike king; conquered [[Alba Longa]], built the [[Curia Hostilia]] (Senate house) |- | 640–616 BC || '''[[Ancus Marcius]]''' || Sabine || Built Rome's first bridge, founded the port of [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]], built the first prison |- | 616–578 BC || '''[[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus|Tarquinius Priscus]]''' || [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] || Began building the [[Roman Forum|Forum]] and [[Circus Maximus]], expanded the Senate to 200 |- | 578–534 BC || '''[[Servius Tullius]]''' || Etruscan || Created the census, built the first city wall, established new citizen classes |- | 534–509 BC || '''[[Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud)]]''' || Etruscan || Completed the Temple of Jupiter; ruled as a tyrant; overthrown in 509 BC |} <small>''Note: These dates follow the traditional chronology given by [[Livy]]. Modern scholars consider the earlier dates uncertain. The average reign length of about 35 years is suspiciously long and may not be historically accurate.''</small> == Romulus (753–716 BC) == Romulus is the legendary founder and first king of Rome. After building the city's first fortifications on the [[Palatine Hill]], he opened Rome to all comers — men of any social class, including slaves and free men without distinction, were welcomed as citizens. This policy of openness would remain a characteristic of Rome throughout its history. To populate his new city with women, Romulus organized an event that became one of the most notorious stories in Roman history: the '''Rape of the Sabine Women''' (the Latin word ''raptio'' means "seizure" or "abduction," not necessarily sexual violence). Romulus invited the neighboring [[Sabines]] to a festival, and during the celebration, the Romans seized the Sabine women as wives. War broke out as a result. After several battles, the Sabine women themselves stepped between the two armies and begged for peace, arguing that they did not want to see their fathers and husbands kill each other. The Romans and Sabines agreed to unite into a single community, with Romulus and the Sabine king [[Titus Tatius]] ruling jointly. After reigning for 37 years, Romulus disappeared mysteriously while reviewing his troops on the [[Campus Martius]]. Some claimed he was taken up to heaven in a whirlwind and became the god [[Quirinus]]. Others suspected the patricians had murdered him. == Numa Pompilius (715–672 BC) == After Romulus's death, there was a one-year interregnum before the Sabine [[Numa Pompilius]] was chosen as the second king. He was known for his justice and piety. Numa's 43-year reign was a time of peace. He built a temple to [[Janus]], the two-faced god of beginnings and endings. The doors of this temple were left open during wartime and closed during peace — and according to tradition, they remained closed for the entire duration of Numa's reign. Numa established many of Rome's most important religious institutions. He created the order of [[Vestal Virgins]], the ''[[Salii]]'' (priests of Mars who performed ritual war dances), and the ''[[flamen]]s'' (priests dedicated to individual gods like [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], Mars, and Quirinus). He also established the office of ''[[pontifex maximus]]'' — the chief priest of Rome, a title that would eventually be adopted by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic popes]]. Numa also reformed the [[Roman calendar]], adding the months of January and February to bring the total from ten to twelve months. == Tullus Hostilius (672–640 BC) == The third king was [[Tullus Hostilius]], who was as warlike as Numa had been peaceful. He waged war against [[Alba Longa]], the mother city from which Romulus and Remus had originally come. Rome won, and Tullus ordered Alba Longa completely destroyed, relocating its entire population to Rome. Tullus also built a new meeting house for the Senate, the [[Curia Hostilia]], which remained in use for over 560 years. According to Livy, Tullus neglected the worship of the gods, and toward the end of his life, he became ill and superstitious. When he begged Jupiter for help, the god responded by striking him with lightning, burning the king and his house to ashes. == Ancus Marcius (640–616 BC) == The fourth king, [[Ancus Marcius]], was a grandson of Numa Pompilius and, like his grandfather, preferred peace to war. He fought only defensive wars, mainly against the [[Latins]]. Ancus made several important contributions to Rome's infrastructure. He built the first bridge across the [[Tiber]], fortified the [[Janiculum]] hill on the river's western bank, and founded the port city of [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]] at the mouth of the Tiber on the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]]. He also established Rome's first salt works (salt was an extremely valuable commodity in the ancient world) and built the city's first [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]] and first prison. Through diplomacy and military strength, Ancus peacefully absorbed several nearby Latin communities into Rome, settling their populations on the [[Aventine Hill]]. These newcomers formed an early base of the [[plebeians|plebeian]] class. == Tarquinius Priscus (616–578 BC) == The fifth king, [[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus|Tarquinius Priscus]] (Tarquin the Elder), was the first king of [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] origin — a major turning point in Roman history. The Etruscans were the dominant civilization in central Italy at this time, and their influence on Rome was enormous. Tarquinius Priscus arrived in Rome as an immigrant and gained the favor of King Ancus, who eventually adopted him. After Ancus died, Tarquinius won the kingship. He was an ambitious builder. He expanded the Senate from 100 to 200 members by adding representatives from conquered Etruscan communities. He began constructing the ''[[Cloaca Maxima]]'' — a massive sewer system that drained the swampy ground between Rome's hills. In the drained area, he began building the [[Roman Forum]], which became the city's main public square. He also started construction of the [[Circus Maximus]], a giant stadium for chariot races, and laid the foundations for the great Temple of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] on the [[Capitoline Hill]]. Tarquinius Priscus was the first Roman to celebrate a ''[[Roman triumph|triumph]]'' — a grand military parade through the city to honor a victorious commander. He reigned for 38 years before being assassinated by the sons of Ancus Marcius. == Servius Tullius (578–534 BC) == [[Servius Tullius]], the sixth king, was Tarquinius Priscus's son-in-law. Ancient sources record that he was the son of a slave woman — if true, this would make him one of history's most remarkable examples of social mobility. Servius carried out some of the most important reforms of the entire regal period. He conducted Rome's first ''[[census]]'' — a systematic count of all citizens and their property. Based on the results, he divided the population into five economic classes. This became the basis for a new assembly, the ''[[Centuriate Assembly]]'', in which voting power was weighted by wealth. He also created four urban ''tribes'' based on geography, which formed the basis for the ''[[Tribal Assembly]]''. Servius built the first defensive wall encircling all seven hills of Rome. Known as the ''[[Servian Wall]]'', sections of it can still be seen in Rome today (though the surviving remains are mostly from a later rebuilding in the 4th century BC). Servius reigned for 44 years. He was murdered in a conspiracy organized by his own daughter [[Tullia Minor|Tullia]] and her husband, who became the last king. == Tarquinius Superbus (534–509 BC) == The seventh and final king, [[Tarquinius Superbus]] (Tarquin the Proud), came to power through violence — he and his wife had arranged the murder of Servius Tullius. He is the only king in Roman tradition who did not come to power through legitimate means. Tarquinius Superbus was a capable military leader who secured Rome's position as the leading power among the [[Latin League|Latin cities]]. He also completed the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill and continued work on the Cloaca Maxima and the Circus Maximus. However, his reign is remembered primarily for tyranny. He ruled without consulting the Senate, judged capital cases without advisors (creating an atmosphere of fear), and showed contempt for Roman customs and traditions. = The overthrow of the monarchy = The event that brought down the kingdom was a crime committed by the king's son. According to tradition, [[Sextus Tarquinius]], the king's son, raped a noblewoman named [[Lucretia]]. After telling her family what had happened, Lucretia took her own life to avoid what she saw as the dishonor of the situation. Lucretia's kinsman, [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], seized on the outrage to lead a revolution against the king. With the support of other leading Romans, including [[Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus]] (Lucretia's husband), Brutus summoned the Senate and had Tarquinius and his entire family expelled from Rome in 509 BC. Brutus and Collatinus became Rome's first two [[Roman consul|consuls]] — elected officials who served one-year terms and shared the power that had previously belonged to the king alone. This was the beginning of the [[Roman Republic]], which would last for nearly five centuries. The Etruscan ruler [[Lars Porsena]] attempted to restore the Tarquins to power, but this effort ultimately failed. Some ancient accounts suggest that Porsena may actually have captured Rome briefly before withdrawing, though the traditional Roman version of events minimizes this embarrassing possibility. = What the Kingdom left behind = Although the Roman Kingdom lasted only about 244 years, it established many of the institutions and traditions that defined Rome for the rest of its history. The '''Senate''', created by Romulus as a small advisory council, would grow into one of the most powerful governing bodies in the ancient world. The '''religious institutions''' established by Numa Pompilius — including the Vestal Virgins, the pontificate, and the system of augury — remained central to Roman life for centuries. The '''census''' and '''class system''' introduced by Servius Tullius became the foundation of Roman political organization under the Republic. The concept of ''imperium'' — supreme executive authority — survived the overthrow of the kings. Under the Republic, ''imperium'' was granted to consuls and other senior officials, but only for limited terms, never for life. The Romans' experience with Tarquinius Superbus's tyranny gave them a deep and lasting distrust of one-man rule, which shaped their political thinking for generations. Even the symbol of the ''[[fasces]]'' carried by the kings' lictors survived. It was adopted by the Republic as a symbol of governmental authority. Much later, the word "fascism" was derived from it in the 20th century. = Notes = {{Notelist}} = See also = * [[Ancient Rome]] * [[Founding of Rome]] * [[Romulus and Remus]] * [[Roman Republic]] * [[Etruscan civilization]] * [[Roman Senate]]