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Map of Gaul showing Caesar's three divisions: Belgica, Celtica, and Aquitania
Latin name	Gallia
Region	Western Europe
Modern territory	France · Belgium · Luxembourg · parts of Switzerland, Netherlands, Germany, northern Italy
Area	~494,000 km²
People	Gauls (Celtic peoples)
Language	Gaulish (Continental Celtic)
Religion	Celtic polytheism (Druids)
Roman conquest	58–50 BC (Julius Caesar)
Roman capital	Lugdunum (Lyon)
Succeeded by	Frankish kingdoms (5th–6th c.)

Gaul (Latin: Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and northern Italy. The region was inhabited by Celtic peoples known as the Gauls, who spoke a Continental Celtic language called Gaulish and followed a polytheistic religion overseen by priests called Druids.

Gaul was never politically unified under a single native ruler, but its tribes were capable of coordinating large-scale military operations. The region's most famous moment in ancient history came when Julius Caesar conquered it between 58 and 50 BC in a campaign he documented in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico ("Commentaries on the Gallic War"). Under Roman rule, Gaul was divided into several provinces and became one of the most prosperous and heavily Romanized parts of the empire. The eventual collapse of Roman control in the 5th century and the rise of the Frankish kingdoms laid the foundations for medieval and modern France.

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Caesar's famous opening line — "All Gaul is divided into three parts" — describes the region's traditional divisions. The Belgae inhabited the north and east, nearest to the Germanic peoples across the Rhine. The Celts (whom Romans called Galli) occupied the center, between the Seine and Garonne rivers. The Aquitani lived in the southwest, between the Garonne and the Pyrenees.

The region's boundaries were broadly defined by the Rhine and the Alps to the east, the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and north. Southern Gaul, known as Gallia Narbonensis, had a Mediterranean climate and was the first part of Gaul to fall under Roman influence. The Po Valley in northern Italy, inhabited by Celtic peoples, was known separately as Gallia Cisalpina ("Gaul this side of the Alps").

The Celtic culture of Gaul emerged from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures of central Europe. By the 5th century BC, the La Tène culture — characterized by distinctive curvilinear art, advanced metalwork, and large fortified settlements called oppida — had spread across the entire territory of Gaul.

At their height in the 2nd century BC, the Gauls numbered perhaps ten million people organized into roughly sixty tribes, each with its own territory, leaders, and coinage. Their society was agricultural, hierarchical, and frequently warlike. The Gauls built large fortified towns such as Bibracte (capital of the Aedui), Gergovia (capital of the Arverni), and Alesia, and maintained extensive trade networks reaching into the Mediterranean world.

The Druids formed a powerful priestly class who served as judges, teachers, and keepers of tradition. They oversaw religious ceremonies, which included animal sacrifice, and transmitted their knowledge entirely through oral tradition — they refused to commit their teachings to writing, contributing to the eventual loss of much Celtic lore.

In 390 BC, a Gallic warband under a chieftain named Brennus defeated the Roman army at the Allia River and sacked Rome itself — one of the most traumatic events in early Roman history. The Romans never forgot this humiliation, and it fueled their drive to eventually conquer all of Gaul.

Rome's involvement in Gaul began in the south. By the mid-2nd century BC, the Romans had allied with the Greek colony of Massilia (modern Marseille) and were trading extensively in the region. After defeating the Allobroges and the Arverni in 121 BC, Rome established the province of Gallia Narbonensis along the Mediterranean coast, with its capital at Narbo Martius (modern Narbonne).

The rest of Gaul remained independent until Julius Caesar, newly appointed governor of both Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul, launched his conquests in 58 BC. Over the next eight years, Caesar waged a series of campaigns against Gallic tribes, Germanic invaders, and even briefly crossed into Britain. His victories were neither easy nor inevitable — in 52 BC, the Arverni chieftain Vercingetorix united much of Gaul in a massive revolt and defeated Caesar at the Battle of Gergovia. However, Caesar besieged and captured Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia later that year, effectively ending organized Gallic resistance.

Caesar's conquest of Gaul was enormously consequential. It brought vast new territories and revenues under Roman control, made Caesar fabulously wealthy and powerful, and set the stage for the civil war that would end the Roman Republic.

Under Emperor Augustus, Gaul was reorganized into four provinces: Gallia Narbonensis in the south, Aquitania in the southwest, Lugdunensis in the center, and Belgica in the north. Lugdunum (modern Lyon) served as the capital of the three northern provinces and became one of the most important cities in the western empire.

Romanization transformed Gaul profoundly. The Romans built roads, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, and bathhouses throughout the region. Latin gradually replaced Gaulish as the everyday language, though Gaulish may have survived in some areas into the 6th century. The Gallic aristocracy adopted Roman customs and dress, and Emperor Claudius (ruled 41–54 AD) made Gallic nobles eligible for seats in the Roman Senate.

Roman Gaul became one of the empire's wealthiest and most productive regions, known for its agriculture, wine production, and pottery. Several major Roman figures were born in Gaul, including the emperors Claudius and Caracalla. The region also produced notable writers, possibly including the historian Tacitus.

During the Crisis of the Third Century, Gaul briefly broke away as part of the Gallic Empire (260–274 AD), an independent state that also included the Iberian Peninsula and Britain, before Emperor Aurelian reclaimed it for Rome.

By the 5th century, Germanic peoples were pushing across the Rhine in increasing numbers. The Visigoths took Aquitania, the Burgundians settled along the Rhône, and the Franks established dominance in Belgica. The last Roman authority in Gaul — the Domain of Soissons — fell to the Franks under Clovis I at the Battle of Soissons in 486.

The Frankish Merovingian dynasty that replaced Roman rule laid the foundations for what would eventually become medieval France. The very name "France" derives from the Franks, the Germanic people who conquered the land the Romans had called Gallia.

Gaul's transformation under Roman rule was one of the most complete cultural assimilations in ancient history. The Gaulish language died out, replaced by the Vulgar Latin dialects that evolved into French — though Gaulish left its mark in loanwords, sound changes, and even grammatical structures in the emerging language.

Roman infrastructure in Gaul — roads, bridges, aqueducts, and cities — shaped the physical landscape of France for centuries. Many modern French cities sit directly on Roman foundations: Lyon (Lugdunum), Paris (Lutetia), Nîmes (Nemausus), Arles (Arelate), and Bordeaux (Burdigala) all trace their origins to Roman Gaul.

Caesar's account of his conquest, the Commentarii de Bello Gallico, remains one of the most widely read works of Latin literature. It is often the first extended Latin text students encounter, and it provides the most detailed ancient account of Celtic society, religion, and warfare — making it an invaluable, if biased, historical source.